Revolutionizing Oil-Water Separation: Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate Nanofibers for Sustainable Membrane Technologies

IJEP 46(7): 603-624 : Vol. 46 Issue 7 (July 2026)

Full Text

Basim M. Mareai1, Mohamad Fared Murshed1*, Mohd Azam Mohd Adnan2, Waleed M. Sh. Alabdraba3 and Qusay F. Alsalhy4

1. Universiti Sains Malaysia, School of Civil Engineering, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
2. University of Selangor, Faculty of Engineering and Life Sciences, Selangor, Malaysia
3. Tikrit University, Environmental Engineering Department, Tikrit, Iraq
4. University of Technology, Membrane Technology Research Unit, Chemical Engineering Department, Baghdad 10066, Iraq

Abstract

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), widely used in plastic bottle manufacturing, poses a significant environmental challenge due to its decomposition period of 300-450 years. The global accumulation of PET waste harms aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and PET microplastics disrupt soil life by causing an imbalance between reactive oxygen species and antioxidant reactions. Therefore, the current review focuses on reusing PET waste to fabricate nanofiber membranes for oil-water separation and waste management, covering preparation methods, properties, performance, applications and challenges of nanofiber membranes from PET waste. Moreover, this review provides an extensive study of nanofibers prepared from PET waste by the electrospinning process for oily wastewater treatment. The electrospinning process is identified as an effective recycling strategy for producing nanofibers, offering advantages, such as minimal energy consumption, low-cost, high value, simplicity and environmental benefits, making it the best method for converting waste and maximizing the value of PET waste. In addition, the electrospinning technique is found to have a higher permeation flux than other techniques for fabricating membranes. PET membranes prepared from waste are similar to those made from raw materials and exhibit excellent oil/water separation efficiency, identical to those made from raw PET. However, the nanofiber membranes produced from waste PET face challenges in permeation flux, with the permeation flux being lower than that of PET produced from raw materials. The analysis shows that membrane separation technology offers superior efficiency in separating oil/water emulsions compared to other methods, particularly for stable emulsions, suggesting a promising future for this technology.

Keywords

Polyethylene terephthalate membranes, Waste plastic bottles, Oil-water separation, Electrospinning, Nanocom-posite, Nanofibers

References

  1. Simonovic, B.R., Arandelovic, D., Jovanovic, M., Kovacevic, B., Pezo, L. and Jovanovic, A. 2009. Removal of mineral oil and wastewater pollutants using hard coal. Chem. Ind. Chem. Eng. Quarterly. 15: 57–62. DOI: 10.2298/CICEQ0902057S.
  2. Amat-Bronnert, A., Castegnaro, M. and Pfohl-Lesz-kowicz, A. 2007. Genotoxic activity and induction of biotransformation enzymes in two human cell lines after treatment by Erika fuel extract. Env. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 23: 89–95. DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2006.07.006.
  3. Aguilera, F., Mendez, J., Pasaro, E. and Laffon, B. 2010. Review on the effects of exposure to spilled oils on human health. J. Appl. Toxicol., 30: 291–301. DOI: 10.1002/jat.1521.
  4. Xiong, Q., Tian, Q., Yue, X., Xu, J., He, X., Qiu, F. and Zhang, T. 2022. Superhydrophobic PET@ZnO nanofibrous membrane extract from waste plastic for efficient water-in-oil emulsion separation waste plastic for efficient water-in-oil emulsion separation. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 61: 11804-11814. DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c01742.
  5. Zhou, D.L., Yang, D., Han, D., Zhang, Q., Chen, F. and Fu, Q. 2021. Fabrication of superhydrophilic and underwater superoleophobic membranes for fast and effective oil/water separation with excellent durability. J. Membr. Sci., 620: 118898. DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118898.
  6. Zeng, X., Qian, L., Yuan, X., Zhou, C., Li, Z. and Cheng, J. 2017. Inspired by Stenocara beetles: From water collection to high-efficiency water-in-oil emulsion separation. ACS Nano. 11: 760–769. DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b07182.
  7. Li, H., Yin, Y., Zhu, L., Xiong, Y., Li, X. and Guo, T. 2019. A hierarchical structured steel mesh decorated with metal organic framework/graphene oxide for high-efficient oil/water separation. J. Hazard Mater., 373: 725–732. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.04.009.
  8. Cheng, X., Ye, Y., Li, Z., Chen, X., Bai, Q., Wang, K., Zhang, Y., Drioli, E. and Ma, J. 2022. Constructing environmental-friendly ‘oil-diode’ Janus membrane for oil/water separation. ACS Nano. 16: 4684–4692. DOI: 10.1021/acsna no.1c11388.
  9. Obaid, M., Mohamed, H.O., Yasin, A.S., Yassin, M.A., Fadali, O.A. and Kim, H. 2017. Under-oil superhydrophilic wetted PVDF electrospun modified membrane for continuous gravitational oil/water separation with outstanding flux. Water Res., 123: 524–535. DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.06.079.
  10. Liao, X.l, Sun, D.X., Cao, S., Zhang, N., Huang, T. and Lei, Y. 2021. Freely switchable super-hydrophobicity and super-hydrophilicity of sponge-like poly (vinylidene fluoride) porous fibers for highly efficient oil/water separation. J. Hazard. Mater., 416: 1259 26. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125926.
  11. Alsalhy, Q.F., Almukhtar, R.S. and Alani, H.A. 2016. Treatment of oil refinery wastewater by membrane bioreactor (MBR). Arabian J. Sci. Eng., 41: 2439–2452.
  12. Alsalhy, Q.F., Al-Ani, F.H. and Al-Najar, A.E. 2018. A new sponge-GAC-sponge membrane module for submerged membrane bioreactor use in hospital wastewater treatment. Biochem. Eng. J., 133 :130-139.
  13. Al-Ani, D.M., Al-Ani, F.H., Alsalhy, Q.F. and Ibrahim, S.S. 2021. Preparation and characterization of nano-filtration membranes from PPSU-PES polymer blend for dyes removal. Chem. Eng. Communications. 208 (1): 41-59. DOI: 10.1080/00986445.2019.1683 546.
  14. Sadiq, A.J., Awad, E.S., Shabeeb, K.M., Khalil, B.I., Al-Jubouri, S.M., Sabirova, T. M., Tretyakova, N.A., Majdi, H.S., Alsalhy, Q.F. and Braihi, A.J. 2023. Comparative study of embedded functionalised MWCNTs and GO in ultrafiltration (UF) PVC membrane: interaction mechanisms and performance. Int. J. Env. Anal. Chem., 103(2): 415 – 436. DOI: 10.1080/03067319.2020.1858073.
  15. Al-Araji, D.D., Al-Ani, F.H. and Alsalhy, Q.F. 2023. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) grafted silica nanoparticles for polyethersulphone membranes modification and their outlooks for wastewater treatment- a review. Int. J. Env. Anal. Chem., 103: 4752-4776. DOI: 10.1080/03067319.2021.1931163.
  16. Ali, A.M., Rashid, K.T., Yahya, A.A. Majdi, H.S., Salih, I.K., Yusoh, K., Alsalhy, Q.F., Razak, A.A.A. and Figoli, A. 2021. Fabrication of gum arabic-gra-phene (GGA) modified polyphenylsulphone (PPSU) mixed matrix membranes: A systematic evaluation study for ultrafiltration (UF) applications. Membranes. 11: 542. DOI: 10.3390/membranes11070 542.
  17. Abdullah, R.R., Shabeed, K.M., Alzubaydi, A.B. and Alsalhy, Q.F. 2022. Novel photocatalytic polyether sulphone ultrafiltration (UF) membrane reinforced with oxygen-deficient tungsten oxide (WO2.89) for Congo Red dye removal. Chem. Eng. Res. Design. 177: 526-540. DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2021.11.015.
  18. Shawket, A.N., Ali, N.S. and Alsalhy, Q.F. 2023. Systematic study for a comprehensive evaluation of PPSU modified with ZnO for ultrafiltration membranes: morphological characteristics and performance. Desalination Water Treatment. 284: 27–38. DOI: 10.5004/dwt.2023.29314.
  19. Al-Arajia, D.D., Al-Ania, F.H. and Alsalhy, Q.F. 2022. The permeation and separation characteristics of polymeric membranes incorporated with nanoparticles for dye removal and interaction mechanisms between polymer and nanoparticles: A mini review. Eng. Tech. J., 40 (11):1399- 1411. DOI: 10.30684/etj.2022.132572.1129.
  20. Abood, T.W., Shabeeb, K.M., Alzubaydi, A.B., Fal, M., Lotaibi, A.M.A., Lawal, D.U., Hernadi, K. and Alsalhy, Q.F. 2024. Novel MXene/PVDF nanocomposite ultrafiltration membranes for optimized Erio-chrome black T (azo dye) removal. Desalination Water Treatment. 318: 100311. DOI: 10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100311.
  21. Ghadhban, M.Y., Rashid, K.T., Abdulrazak, A.A. and Alsalhy, Q.F. 2024. A novel poly(lactic-acid) and poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) blend membrane modified with hesperidin for oily water emulsions separation. Chem. Eng. Res. Design. 206: 265-279. DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2024.05.020.
  22. Kong, J. and Li, K. 1999. Oil removal from oil-in-water emulsions using PVDF membranes. Sep. Purif. Tech., 16: 83–93. DOI: 10.1016/S1383-58 66(98)00114-2.
  23. Mansourizadeh, A. and Azad, A.J. 2014. Preparation of blend polyethersulphone/celluloseacetate/ polyethylene glycol asymmetric membranes for oil–water separation. J. Polym. Res., 21: 1–9. DOI: 10.1007/s10965-014-0375-x.
  24. Ochoa, N.A., Masuelli, M. and Marchese, J. 2003. Effect of hydrophilicity on fouling of an emulsified oil wastewater with PVDF/PMMA membranes. J. Membr. Sci., 226: 203–211. DOI: 10.1016/j.mem sci.2003.09.004.
  25. Rahimpour, A. and Madaeni, S.S. 2007. Polyether-sulphone (PES)/cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP) blend ultrafiltration membranes: Preparation, morphology, performance and antifouling properties. J. Membr. Sci., 305: 299–312. DOI: 10.1016/j.mem sci.2007.08.030.
  26. Mareai, B. M., Alabdraba, W. M. S., Al-Juboori, R. A., Alsalhy, Q. F., Awang, N. A. and Murshed, M. F. 2025. Nanoengineered rPET-WO3nanofibrous membranes: A dual-function solution for oil/saline water separation and photocatalytic self-cleaning. J. Water Process Eng., 80: 109212. DOI: 10.1016/j.jwpe.2025.109212.
  27. Pedemonte, E. and Struttura, F. 2012. Fundamentals of polymer structure, properties and technology. Nuova Cultura, Rome, Italy.
  28. PlasticsEurope. 2019. Plastics—The facts 2019. An analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data. Available at: https://www. plasticseurope.org/en/resources/publications/1804-plastics-facts-2019.
  29. Plastics Packaging. Plastics packaging: European consumption 2007. Available at: https://www. plasteurope.com/news/PLASTICS_PACKAGING_ t209101/.
  30. Martín, D.M., Ahmed, M.M., Rodríguez, M., García, M.A. and Faccini, M. 2017. Mater., 10 (12): 1352. DOI: 10.3390/ma10121352.
  31. Hao, M., Zhang, T., Hu, X., Chen, Z., Yang, B., Wang, X., Liu, Y., Wang, R. and Liu, Y. 2023. Facile, green and scalable preparation of low-cost PET-PVDF felts for oil absorption and oil/water separation. J. Hazard. Mater., 448: 130804. DOI: 10.10 16/J.JHAZMAT.2023.130804.
  32. Long, M., Ma, Y., Yang, C., Zhang, R. and Jiang, Z. 2021. Superwetting membranes: From controllable constructions to efficient separations. J. Mater. Chem., 9: 1395–1417. DOI: 10.1039/d0ta10280f.
  33. Gan, L., Zhang, D., Yue, X., Xu, J., Qiu, F. and Zhang, T. 2022. A recyclable and regenerated aerogel membrane derived from waste plastic for emulsion separation. J. Env. Chem. Eng., 10: 108221. DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2022.108221.
  34. Tai, S.L., Abidin, M.N.Z., Ma’amor, A. and Hashim, N.A. 2025. Polyethylene terephthalate membrane: A review of fabrication techniques, separation processes and modifications. Separation Purification Tech., 354(Part 7): 129343. DOI: 10.1016/j.sep pur.2024.129343.
  35. Diwan, T., Al-Furaiji, M.H., Abudi, Z.N., Awad, M. and Alsalhy, Q.F. 2024. A critical review of membranes made of nanofibres polymeric materials for application of treating oily wastewater. Canadian J. Chem. Eng., 103(3): 1375-1399. DOI: 10.1002/cjce.25449.
  36. Topuz, F., Diana, G. and Szekely, O.G. 2022. Valourization of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic wastes as nanofibrous membranes for oil removal: Sustainable solution for plastic waste and oil pollution. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 61(25): 9077–9086. DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c01431.
  37. Kirshanov, K., Toms, R., Aliev, G., Naumova, A., Melnikov, P. and Gervald, A. 2022. Recent developments and perspectives of recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate)-based membranes: A review. Membranes. 12(11): 1105. DOI: 10.3390/membranes12 111105.
  38. Suhaimi, N.A.S., Muhamad, F., Razak, N.A.A. and Zeimaran, E. 2022. Recycling of polyethylene tere-phthalate wastes: A review of technologies, routes, and applications. Polymer Eng. Sci., 62(8): 2355-2375. DOI: 10.1002/pen.26017.
  39. Radoor, S., Karayil, J., Jayakumar, A. and Sieng-chin, S. 2024. Efficient removal of dyes, heavy metals and oil-water from wastewater using electro-spun nanofiber membranes: A review. J. Water Process Eng., 59: 104983. DOI: 10.1016/j.jwpe 2024.104983.
  40. Ignatyev, I.A., Thielemans, W. and Beke, B.V. 2014. Recycling of polymers: A review. ChemSusChem. 7 (6): 1579–1593. DOI: 10.1002/cssc.2013008 98.
  41. Guajardo, C. and Andler, R. 2024. Challenges and perspectives in enzymatic polymer fragmentation: The case of rubber and polyethylene terephthalate. J. Clean. Prod., 450: 141875. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcle pro.2024.141875.
  42. Singh, A.K., Bedi, R. and Kaith, B.S. 2021. Composite materials based on recycled polyethylene terephthalate and their properties – A comprehensive review. Composites Part B: Eng., 219: 108928. DOI: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.108928.
  43. Liu, C., Shi, C., Zhu, S., Wei, R. and Yin, C.C. 2019. Structural and functional characterization of polyethylene terephthalate hydrolase from Ideonella sakaiensis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 508 (1): 289–294. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.11.148.
  44. Diao, J., Hu, Y., Tian, Y., Carr, R. and Moon, T.S. 2023. Upcycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) to produce high-value bio-products. Cell Reports. 42(1): 111908. DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111908.
  45. Singh, A.K. and Bedi, R. 2023. Effect of graphene nanoplatelets on fatigue performance of glass fiber reinforced composite materials based on recycled polyethylene terephthalate. Compos. Commun., 40: 101595. DOI: 10.1016/j.coco.2023.101595.
  46. Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R. and Law, K.L. 2017. Production, use and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci. Adv., 3(7): 1700782. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1700 782.
  47. He, H., Reynolds, C.J., Hadjikakou, M., Holyoak, N. and Boland, J. 2020. Quantification of indirect waste generation and treatment arising from Australian household consumption: a waste input-output analysis. J. Clean. Prod., 258: 120935. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120935.
  48. Magnin, A., Pollet, E., Phalip, V. and Averous, L. 2020. Evaluation of biological degradation of polyurethanes. Biotech. Adv., 39: 107457. DOI: 10.10 16/j.biotechadv.2019.107457.
  49. Goswami, S., Kushwaha, A., Goswami, L., Singh, N., Bhan, U., Daverey, A. and Hussain, C. M. 2021. Biological treatment, recovery and recycling of metals from waste printed circuit boards (chapter 9). in Environmental management of waste electrical and electronic equipment. Elsevier. pp 163–184. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-822474-8.00009-X.
  50. Prata, J.C. 2018. Airborne microplastics: Consequences to human health? Env. Poll., 234: 115–126. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.043.
  51. Yaka, M., Ehirchiou, A., Alkandry, T.T.S. and Sair, K. 2015. Huge plastic bezoar: a rare cause of gastrointestinal obstruction. Pan African Medical J., 21(1): 286. DOI: 10.11604/pamj.2015.21.286. 7169.
  52. Zhang, W., Ma, X., Zhang, Z., Wang, Y., Wang, J. Wang, J. and Ma, D. Persistent organic pollutants carried on plastic resin pellets from two beaches in China. Marine Poll. Bulletin. 99 (1–2): 28–34. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.08.002.
  53. Patra, D., Patra, B.R., Pattnaik, F., Hans, N. and Kushwaha, A. 2022. Recent evolution in green technologies for effective valourization of food and agricultural wastes (chapter 5). in Emerging trends to approaching zero waste. Elsevier. pp 103–132. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-85403-0.00001-3.
  54. Kushwaha, A., Yadav, A.N., Singh, B., Dwivedi, V. Kumar, S., Goswami, L. and Hussain, C. M. 2022. Life cycle assessment and techno-economic analysis of algae-derived biodiesel: Current challenges and future prospects (chapter 12). in Waste-to-energy approaches towards zero waste: Interdisciplinary methods of controlling waste. Elsevier. pp 343–372. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-85387-3.00 003-3.
  55. Lykov, A.P., Poveshchenko, O.V., Surovtseva, M.A., Bondarenko, N.A., Kim, I.I., Karpenko, A. A. and Karaskov, A.M. 2019. Effect of polyethylene terephthalate on functional properties of endothelial and mesenchymal cells. Bulletin Experimental Biol. Medicine. 166 (4): 580–585. DOI: 10.1007/s10517-019-04395-2.
  56. Begum, W., Goswami, L., Sharma, B.B. and Kushwaha, A. 2022. Assessment of urban river pollution using the water quality index and macro-invertebrate community index. Env. Develop. Sustain., 25: 8877–8902. DOI: 10.1007/ s10668-022-023 69-5.
  57. Devi, G., Kushwaha, A., Goswami, L., Chakrabarty, S., Kaur, H., Sathe, S.S. and Sarma, H. P. 2022. Toxicity assessment of fluoride-contaminated soil and wastewater in Solanum tuberosum. Water Air Soil Poll., 233: 232. DOI: 10.1007/s11270-022-05694-7.
  58. Yao, J., Yu, Y., Qu, R., Chzhen, J., Huo, Z., Zhu, F. and Wang, Z. 2020. Fe-activated peroxymonosulphate enhances the degradation of dibutyl phthalate on ground quartz sand. Env. Sci. Tech., 54 (14): 9052–9061. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c00793.
  59. Song, Y., Cao, C., Qiu, R., Hu, J., Liu, M., Lu, S. and He, D. 2019. Uptake and adverse effects of polyethylene terephthalate microplastics fibers on terrestrial snails (Achatina fulica) after soil exposure. Env. Poll., 250: 447–455. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.04.066.
  60. Othman, A.R., Hasan, H.A., Muhamad, M.H., Ismail, N.I. and Abdullah, S.R.S. 2021. Microbial degradation of microplastics by enzymatic processes: a review. Env. Chem. Letters. 19 (4): 3057–3073. DOI: 10.1007/s10311-021-01197-9.
  61. Bhuyan, C., Konwar, A., Bora, P., Rajguru, P. and Hazarika, S. 2023. Cellulose nanofiber-poly(ethylene terephthalate) nanocomposite membrane from waste materials for treatment of petroleum industry wastewater. J. Hazard. Mater., 442: 129955. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129955.
  62. Xiong, Q., Yue, X., Zhuang, Z., Xu, J., Qiu, F. and Zhang, T. 2023. Biomimetic fabrication of PET composite membranes with enhanced stability and demulsibility for emulsion separation. Separation Purification Tech., 314: 123547. DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2023.123547.
  63. Xiong, Q., Chen, H., Tian, Q., Yue, X., Qiu, F., Zhang, T. and Wang, A. 2022. Waste PET derived Janus fibrous membrane for efficient oil/water emulsions separation. J. Env. Chem. Eng., 10: 108459. DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2022.108459.
  64. Xiong, Q., Mo, Q., Yue, X., Xiao, J., Dai, Y., Qiu, F. and Zhang, T. 2024. A smart superwetting PET-anthocyanin membrane for pH monitoring in water and emulsion separation. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 132: 507–517. DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2023.11.045.
  65. Mitra, D., Tai, M., Abdullah, E., Wang, C. and Neoh, K. 2021. Facile fabrication of porous waste-derived carbon-polyethylene terephthalate composite sorbent for separation of free and emulsified oil from water. Separation Purification Tech., 279: 119664. DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119664.
  66. Chen, H., Zuo, Z., Tian, Q., Xue, S., Qiu, F., Peng, X. and Zhang, T. 2023. Waste to treasure: A superwetting fiber membrane from waste PET plastic for water-in-oil emulsion separation. J. Clean. Prod., 396: 136502. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023. 136502.
  67. Ali, B.I., Widiastuti, N., Kusumawati, Y. and Jaafar, J. 2023. Utilization of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottle waste as membrane with several modifications for the removal of chromium ions in wastewater. Mater. Today: Proceedings. 74: 433–437. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.11.141.
  68. Hao, M., Zhang, T., Hu, X., Chen, Z., Yang, B., Wang, X., Liu, Y., Wang, R. and Liu, Y. 2023. Facile, green and scalable preparation of low-cost PET-PVDF felts for oil absorption and oil/water separation. J. Hazard. Mater., 448: 130804. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat. 2023.130804.
  69. Zhang, T., Yang, B., Wang, Q., Hu, X., Chen, Z. and Liu, Y. 2024. Rapid preparation of PET-PVDF Janus fiber felt for emulsion separation. Separation Purification Tech., 330: 125466. DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2023.125466.
  70. Shu, H., Yang, L., Wang, C., Song, C., Chen, D., Zhang, X. and Ma, Y. 2024. Fabrication and properties of asymmetric PET fabrics with high-permeation flux for on-demand oil/water separation. J. Membrane Sci., 692: 122271. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn. 4563202.
  71. Huang, Y., Zhao, Z., Liu, H., Zou, X. and Wang, J. 2023. Two combination strategies of coordinated silicon elastomer and modified nano-silica to fabricate self-healing hybrid coating@fabrics with high oil-water separation capabilities. Colloids Surfaces A: Physico-chemical Eng. Aspects. 658: 130685. DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2022.130685.
  72. McKeen, L.W. 2018. Polyesters (chapter 5). In The effect of sterilization on plastics and elastomers. William Andrew Publishing. pp 139–184. DOI: 10. 1016/B978-0-12-814511- 1.00005-6.
  73. Li-Na, J. 2013. Study on preparation process and properties of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Appl. Mech. Mater. 312: 406–10. DOI: 10.4028/www. scientific.net/AMM.312.406.
  74. Demirel, B., Yaras, A. and Elçiçek, H. 2011. Crystallization behaviour of PET materials. BAÜ Fen Bil. Enst. Dergisi Cilt. 13: 26–35.
  75. Chang, C.W. and Lai, W.C. 2020. A strategy for preparing solid polymer electrolytes via the electro-spinning process. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng., 116: 279–285.
  76. Luraghi, A., Peri, F. and Moroni, L. 2021. Electro-spinning for drug delivery applications: a review. J. Control Release. 334: 463–484. DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.03.033.
  77. He, L., Lan, W., Ahmed, S., Qin, W. and Liu, Y. 2019. Electrospun polyvinyl alcohol film containing pomegranate peel extract and sodium dehydroacetate for use as food packaging. Food Packag. Shelf Life. 22(10): 100390. DOI: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2019. 100390.
  78. Alp-Erbay, E., Figueroa-Lopez, K.J., Lagaron, J.M., Çaglak, E. and Torres-Giner, S. 2019. The impact of electrospun films of poly(epsilon-caprolactone) filled with nanostructured zeolite and silica micro-particles on in vitro histamine formation by Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella Paratyphi A. Food Packaging and Shelf Life. 22: 1-13. DOI: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2019.100414.
  79. Moradi, G., Dabirian, F., Mohammadi, P., Rajabi, L., Babaei, M. and Shiri, N. 2018. Electrospun fumarate ferroxane/polyacrylonitrile nanocomposite nanofibers adsorbent for lead removal from aqueous solution: Characterization and process optimization by response surface methodology. Chem. Eng. Res. Design. 129: 182–196. DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2017.09.022
  80. Huang, J., Pang, H., Liu, Z., Wang, X., Zhang, C., Zhang, W., Liub, S. and He, W. 2024. Electrospinning biohybrid technology for wastewater treatment: Principle, applications and perspectives. Chem. Eng. J., 491(1): 151971. DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.151971.
  81. Gonzalez, E., Barankin, M.D., Guschl, P.C. and Hicks, R.F. 2008. Remote atmospheric pressure plasma activation of the surfaces of poly(ethylene terephthalate) and polyethylene naphthalate. Langmuir. 24: 12636–12643. DOI: 10.1021/la802-296c.
  82. Li, S., Huang, J., Chen, Z., Chen, G. and Lai, Y. 2017. A review on special wettability textiles: Theoretical models, fabrication technologies and multifunctional applications. J. Mater. Chem. A. 5 (1): 31–55. DOI: 10.1039/c6ta07984a.
  83. Chizawa, Y., Miyagawa, Y., Yoshida, M. and Ada-chi, S. 2019. Effect of crystallization of oil phase on the destabilization of O/W emulsions containing vegetable oils with low melting points. Colloids Surf. A: Physicochemical Eng. Aspects. 582: 123824. DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2019.123824.
  84. Selatile, K., Ray, S.S., Ojijo, V. and Sadiku, R.E. 2021. Morphological, thermal and mechanical properties of electrospun recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate)/ graphene oxide composite nanofiber membranes. ACS omega. 6(32): 21005–21015. DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c02578.
  85. Doan, H.N., Vo, P.P., Hayashi, K., Kinashi, K., Sakai, W. and Tsutsumi, N. 2020. Recycled PET as a PDMS -functionalized electrospun fibrous membrane for oil-water separation. J. Env. Chem. Eng., 8(4): 103921. DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2020.103921.
  86. Li, Y., Zhang, G., Gao, A., Cui, J., Zhao, S. and Yan, Y. 2019. Robust graphene/poly(vinyl alcohol) Janus aerogels with a hierarchical architecture for highly efficient switchable separation of oil/water emulsions. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 11: 36638 –36648. DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b11277.
  87. Liu, W., Zhang, Y., Wang, S., Bai, L., Deng, Y. and Tao, J. 2021. Effect of pore size distribution and amination on adsorption capacities of polymeric adsorbents. Molecules. 26: 5267–5278. DOI: 10.3 390/molecules26175267.
  88. Khant, N.A. and Kim, H. 2022. Review of current issues and management strategies of microplastics in groundwater environments. Water. 14 (7): 1020. DOI: 10.3390/w14071020.
  89. Awaja, F. and Pavel, D. 2005. Recycling of PET. European Polym. J., 41: 1453–77. DOI: 10.1016/ j.eurpolymj. 2005.02.005.
  90. Ebewele, R.O. 2005. Polymer science and technology. CRC press. DOI: 10.1201/9781420057805.